读克里斯蒂安•诺伯格-舒尔茨《人为之地》

李黄颖孟欣然

20世纪60到70年代的西方社会，后现代主义思潮异彩纷呈。后现代城市设计显示出开放包容的特性，将社会文化领域和建筑学领域的多种思想和主义源源不断的引入其中，促进自身的开放和成熟。挪威建筑师和历史学家克里斯蒂安·诺伯格-舒尔茨（Christian Norberg-Schulz, 1926-2000）的“场所精神”理论就是在这种背景下产生的。在战后工业技术的影响下，建筑实践逐渐向大规模、普适化的工业产品靠拢，舒尔茨等隐隐把握到某种意义危机的建筑师和理论家们，或针对建筑现状展开分析批判，或投身于西方哲学思潮中寻找理论基石。在此背景下，强调直觉体验、意识研究的现象学重新进入了理论家们的视野。

德国哲学家胡塞尔以现象学的研究开启了理性主义时代认识论的大门。在这里，意识作为现象，是纯粹的“描述性”的而非理论性的，它可以而且只可以直观地把握。现象不能被抽象归纳，不能分析推理，不必借助科学和哲学的任何理论建构，“现象就是本质”。胡塞尔认为，为了描述人“生活的世界”（life-world）以何种方式的意识揭示自身，必须排除一切现成的观点、实验科学的观点及经验的观点，以达到“意识自身的固有存在”，这就是“现象学的还原”，包括先验还原、本质还原和现象还原三步。在胡塞尔的基础上,海德格尔拓展了"回归事物本身"的现象学理论，通过对“在世存有”（being-in-the-world）的研究来认识事物本身。现象学是本体论意义上的方法论，这种“方法”意味着依照“本源”，回归到日常生活世界中的各种现象和问题中，注重事物之间的关系，克服科学研究的抽象性。

舒尔茨受到海德格尔的影响尤深；他在《存在•空间•建筑》中提到：“海德格尔的《存在与时间》及《筑居思》是基础和先驱性论著，尤其重要，而梅洛-庞蒂批判知觉心理学所提出的某些理论是表面性的。”海德格尔现象学在立场上深刻启发了舒尔茨，使他从能被直接感知到的现象出发，深入思考建筑、环境与人的相互关系。在这个关系网的背后，被海德格尔予以肯定、让万物本质得到彰显的“人”，也成为舒尔茨的研究重点。将人的感觉、经验和认同上升为空间具有的独特品质的“场所精神”（genius loci）便诞生自建筑现象学的内核，赓续了舒尔茨继承自海德格尔的研究立场和理论脉络。

舒尔茨曾先后就读于苏黎世高等理工大学、哈佛大学和挪威理工学院，发表《建筑的意图》（Intentions in Architecture, 1963），《存在•空间•建筑》（Existence, Space and Architecture, 1971），《西方建筑的意义》（Meaning in Western Architecture，1973），《场所精神：迈向建筑现象学》（GENIUS LOCI: Towards a Phenomenology of Architecture, 1980）等理论著作。本篇《人为之地》（Man-Made Place，或译“人为场所”）节选自舒尔茨知名度极高的著作《场所精神：迈向建筑现象学》中的第三章，其对于“人为之地”的深刻剖析，上承前二章“场所”理论的构建，下启后文对布拉格、喀土穆等具体城镇的现象学分析，具有很高的精读价值。同时，“场所精神”也不再是抽象的定义，而是由浪漫式、宇宙式、古典式等分析回归了与日常生活体验息息相关的感知层面。从行文结构上看，该篇又可拆分为人为场所的现象、人为场所的结构、人为场所的精神三部分，与前文对自然场所的分析逻辑具有一致性。在这个构架下，舒尔茨提出早期文明中自然、人、“人为场所”相互关联的建筑现象，并分析各层次场所中共有的结构特征，由此衍生出的多种“原型”中存在着可供识读的“场所精神”。

舒尔茨认为建筑（人为场所）是人类对于自然理解的具体化，这种理解可以从力（force）、秩序（order）、特性（character）、光线（light）和时间（time）等角度针对某些建筑现象加以阐述。而相对的，人为场所又会影响人类对于自然的理解，例如在北欧传统文化里，住宅成为人们形象化宇宙的缩影。在此部分中，舒尔茨还强调了“集聚”（gathering）的重要性，不同尺度的“聚落”（settlement）如农场、农业村、城镇、城市等皆建立在“集聚”的基础上。

在“人为场所的结构”一节中，舒尔茨指出“边界”（boundary）的出现是各层级场所得以存在的前提，而所有人为场所的显著特征无一例外则是围合（enclosure,或译“包被”）。这是一个抽象概念，甚至可以仅凭地面纹理的变化而产生，但仍有围合完整程度、开口方向等评断标准。具有“中心”（centre）性的集中围合若是引入开口、形成轴线，便可以被抽象成“路径”（path），而中心和路径进一步复合，就会形成“场域”(domain)，并进一步衍生出如圆形、方体、簇群（cluster）等建筑或场所的原型。除了围合程度外，人为场所的特性还取决于该环境层级下的建筑物能否以一致的方式分别回应天地，这点可以从建造和形式的层面来理解，例如派斯顿的赫拉神庙，以柱子的强烈收分让人有接近大地的感受。

最后，在“人为场所的精神”一节中，舒尔茨按照特定的精神氛围将“人为场所”分为浪漫式建筑、宇宙式建筑、古典式建筑和复合式建筑四种类型。浪漫的场所是基于地形结构的，通过形式的复杂性和矛盾性获得鲜活多样的表现力，通常具有强烈的地方特色；宇宙建筑是严格的几何结构，且是均质、抽象的，如规则的网格或迷宫等似乎可以向四方无限延展的场所原型都属于宇宙空间的范畴；古典场所则统一了地形与几何特征，古典的部分往往具有各自的、与人的特质息息相关的特征，原始的力量被“人性化”了，某种“民主”的自由得以实现，而占主导地位的总体系统不复存在。最后，以哥特式大教堂和巴洛克花园宫殿为例，舒尔茨介绍了综合多种氛围的复合式建筑，前者在浪漫的氛围下表现出对宇宙秩序的形象化，后者则综合了古典的建筑和兼顾浪漫与宇宙氛围的花园。

舒尔茨在前言中写道，《场所精神：迈向建筑现象学》一书是关于建筑存在意义的书，它是《建筑的意图》《存在•空间•建筑》的一本续集，也与《西方建筑的意义》有关，都有共同的观点，即建筑是赋予人一个“存在的立足点”（Existential foothold）的方式。因此主要目的在于探究建筑精神上的含义而非实用上的层面。主张艺术作品的概念是生活情境的“具现”，人的基本需求在于体验其生活情境是有意义的，艺术作品的目的则在于“保存”并传达其意义。而建筑意味着场所精神的具象化，建筑师的任务则是创造有意义的场所。

舒尔茨以现象学理论作为哲学基础和指导思想，不仅提出了一种考察建筑现象的重要方法：即直接面对事物本身，从对现象的完整和准确描述中，发现那些更为一般和具有普遍意义的现象——本质，且还建立了一种新的建筑理论——建筑现象学。建筑现象学是将建筑在具体的、实在的和存在的领域加以理解的理论，将建筑看作是一个具体的现象，并以此来建立建筑理论的基础。“场所和场所精神理论”是建筑现象学的核心范畴之一。场所不仅具有实体空间的形式，而且还有精神上的意义。场所精神又比场所有着更广泛而深刻的内容和意义。

纵观全文，舒尔茨对人为场所的建筑现象学分析注重“感受”，同时又未局限于此；他的切入点与其说是古典建筑，不如理解为具有历时性的文化心理在建筑物上的投射，因此本篇中选取的很多现象都来自于经典案例如金字塔、神庙、凯旋门等。虽然此书未对古典和风土进行区分，但对场所精神的剖析一再趋近风土研究的史地维度。笔者在《西方现代风土建筑概论》“风土关键性文献工作坊”课堂汇报时将“man-made place”误译为“人造的场所”，经潘老师指出，思考后启示较深：“人为”比“人造”的所指更加广泛，不仅涵盖了建造及人类对场所塑造的间接作用，还可以包含精神意义上的“塑造”，即人对于场所的具体感知与心理认同——而这也暗合了场所精神的内涵。

人为之地

克里斯蒂安•诺伯格-舒尔茨

1. The Phenomena of Man-made Place

To dwell between heaven and earth means to “settle” in the “multifarious in-between”, that is, to concretize the general situation as a man-made place. The word “settle” here does not mean a mere economical relationship; it is rather an existential concept which denotes the ability to symbolize meanings. When the man-made environment is meaningful, man is “at home”. The places where we have grown up are such “homes”; we know exactly how it feels to walk on that particular pavement, to be between those particular walls, or under that particular ceiling; we know the cool enclosure of the Southern house, and the comforting warmth of the Nordic dwelling. In general, we know “realities” which carry our existence. But “settling” goes beyond such immediate gratiﬁcations. From the beginning of time man has recognized that to create a place means to express the essence of being. The man-made environment where he lives is not a mere practical tool or the result of arbitrary happenings, it has structure and embodies meanings. These meanings and structures are reﬂections of man’s understanding of the natural environment and his existential situation in general. A study of man-made place therefore ought to have a natural basis: it should take the relationship to the natural environment as its point of departure.

1、人为场所的现象

居住于天地间意味在“各种中间物”中“定居”，亦即将一般的情境具体化为人为场所。“定居"的意思在此不仅表示经济上的关系，且是一种存在的概念，表示将意义象征化的能力。当人为环境充满意义时便让人觉得"在家般的畅快"。我们成长的场所就像"家”一样，走在那特殊的铺面上，或置身于特殊的墙面之间,或在特殊的天花之下都会有很清楚的感受；我们晓得欧洲南部住宅凉爽的围合，以及北欧住宅所期盼的温暖。一般而言，我们认为"事实真相"实现了我们的存在。不过“定居”则超乎这种直接的满足。一开始人便理解创造一个场所意味着表现存有物的本质。人所生活的人为环境并不只是实用的工具，或任意事件的集结，而是具有结构同时使意义具体化。这些意义和结构反映出人对自然环境和一般的存在情境的理解。因此对人为场所的研究必须有一个自然的基准：必须以与自然环境的关系作为出发点。

Architectural history shows that man’s primeval experience of everything as a “Thou”, also determined his relationship to buildings and artifacts. Like natural elements, they were imbued with life, they had mana, or magical power. Demonic powers in fact are conquered by giving them a “dwelling”. In this way they are ﬁxed to a place and may be inﬂuenced by man. The architecture of early civilizations may therefore be interpreted as a concretization of the understanding of nature, described above in terms of things, order, character, light and time. The processes involved in “translating” these meanings into manmade forms have already been deﬁned as “visualization”, “complementation”, and “symbolization”, whereas “gathering” serves the somewhat diﬀerent purpose of making the man-made place become a microcosmos. In general we may say that man “builds” his world.

建筑史显示出人对任何事物原始的体验是“你",同时也界定了人和建筑物及人造物(artifacts)间的关系。像自然的元素一样深植于生命中，便有了母性的(mana)或神秘的力量。事实上恶魔的力量所以被制服就是因为给予它们一个住所，如此一来它们全都被禁锢在一个场所中，便有可能受到人的感化。所以早期的建筑文明可以说是对自然理解的具体表现，并以上述的物、秩序、特性、光线和时间来描述。将这些意义诠释成人为造型的过程就是我们定义的“形象化” “补充” “象征化”，因此“集聚”的功能有不同的目的,是将一处人为场所变成一个小宇宙。通常我们可以说人“构筑”了自己的世界。

The ﬁrst mode of building consists in concretizing the natural forces. In the early history of Western art and architecture we encounter two basic ways of doing this. Either the forces are “directly” expressed by means of lines and ornament, or they are concretized as man-made things, which represent the natural things mentioned above. Whereas the ﬁrst way was employed by the “Nordic” peoples, the second was developed by the Mediterranean civilizations3. We shall here concentrate our attention on the “Mediterranean” mode. Early Mediterranean architecture is ﬁrst of all distinguished by the use of large stones. It is a megalithic architecture where the material symbolizes the solidity and permanence found in mountains and rocks. Permanence was understood as a primary existential need, and was related to man’s ability of procreation. The erect stone, menhir, was simultaneously a “built” rock and a phallic symbol, and the massive, cyclopic wall embodied the same forces. Through a process of abstraction, the elementary forces were transformed into a system of verticals and horizontals (“active” and “passive” elements), a development which culminated in the orthogonal structures of Egyptian architecture. Other natural meanings were also related to this system. The Egyptian pyramids are “artiﬁcial mountains” which were built to make the properties of a real mountain manifest, such as an inferred vertical axis which connects earth and sky and “receives” the sun. Thus the pyramid uniﬁes the primordial mountain of Egyptian mythology with the radiant sun-god Ra, and represents the king as his son. At the same time the pyramids through their location between oasis and desert (life and death), visualize the spatial structure of the country; a longitudinal fertile valley between inﬁnite expanses of barren land. Here buildings are used to deﬁne a signiﬁcant boundary (“edge”).

第一种建筑物的模式是将自然力量具体化。在早期的西方艺术发展和建筑发展中有两种主要的方法处理这个问题。将这种力量“直接"利用线条和装饰来表现，或将它具体化成为人为的物，代表上述的自然物。北欧人所采用的是第一种方式，第二种则由地中海文化所发展，在此我们将留意“地中海”模式。早期的地中海建筑几乎都是使用大石头。在巨石建筑中材料象征的坚固性和恒久性系来自高山和岩石。恒久性被视为是主要的存在需求，与人类的生殖能力有关。昂立的石头（menhir）,是一块“构筑的”岩石也同时是一种阳具崇拜的象征。庞大的和巨石的墙也将这些力量具体化。透过抽象化的过程，这些基本力量被转化为垂直和水平的系统（“主动的”和“被动的”元素），埃及建筑中的正交结构（orthogonal structures）是这种发展的巅峰时刻。其他的自然意义也和这种系统有关，埃及的金字塔是“人造的山”，用来表现一座真正高山的特质，像是一条具有含义的垂直轴线，连接大地与天空，同时“吸收”太阳。因此金字塔将埃及神话中的原始高山和辐射的太阳神Ra相结合，并且视国王为太阳神之子。同时金字塔经由在绿洲和沙漠（生命与死亡）的地方，将疆土的空间结构形象化；一个纵向的肥沃山谷介于无限扩展的荒芜之地。建筑物通常被定义为一个有意义的边界。

Finally we may mention that Egyptians “built” the sky, decorating ceilings of tombs, temples and houses with stars on a blue ground. By means of visualization and symbolization the ancient Egyptians thus concretized their known world.

最后我们可以说埃及人“构筑”了天空，在坟墓、庙宇和住家中都以星星配上蓝色的背景装饰天花。因此古埃及利用形象化和象征化将他们所理解的世界具体化。

We gave already mentioned the cave as another archetypal natural element. In megalithic architecture artiﬁcial caves, dolmen, were built to visualize this aspect of the earth. Being simultaneously interior spaces and feminine symbols, the artiﬁcial caves were understood as representations of the world as a whole, an interpretation which was completed by the introduction of vertical “masculine” elements, such as a pillar, or an orthogonal system of vertical and horizontal members. The “marriage of heaven and earth” which was the point of departure for ancient cosmogonies was thus concretized in built form. Typical examples are furnished by the megalithic temples of Malta, where the apses contained a menhir and the boundaries are orthogonally articulated.

我们曾说明过洞穴为另一种原型的自然元素。在巨石建筑中，人造的洞穴塚墓（dolmen）被构筑起来以形象化大地的观感。同时也是内部空间和女性的象征，人造的洞穴被视为是将世界表现成一个整体，这种诠释由垂直的“男性的”元素的介入得以完成，例如柱或垂直及水平构件所形成的正交系统。“苍穹与大地的结合”是古代宇宙进化论的出发点，因而表现在构造的形态上。马耳他（Malia）的巨石庙宇便是一个典型的例子。末殿（apses）包括了一个矗石（menhir）和由正交系统清楚界定出来的边界。

In ancient architecture we also encounter other representations of natural elements. The Ionic temple with its numerous columns has thus been described as a “sacred grove”, and the expression “forest of columns” is often used to designate the hypostyle halls of early civilizations. In the Egyptian temples the columns are in fact derived from plant forms, such as palm, papyrus and lotus. The Egyptian forest of columns represented “the land and the sacred plants which rose out of the fertilized soil to bring protection, permanence and sustenance to the land and its people”. In general man’s understanding of the fertile soil is visualized through agriculture. In the cultural landscape the natural forces are “domesticated” and living reality is made manifest as an ordered process where man participates. The garden is hence a place where living nature is concretized as an organic totality. Man’s image of Paradise was in fact always an enclosed garden. In the garden the known elements of nature are gathered: fruit trees, ﬂowers and “tamed” water. In Mediaeval painting it is depicted as a hortus conclusus with the “Tree of Life” and a fountain in the middle, surrounded by a “wilderness” of mountains and forests. Even water may thus be “built”, that is, given precise deﬁnition as part of a cultural landscape, or visualized in a fountain. In the cultural landscape man “builds” the earth, and makes its potential structure manifest as a meaningful totality. A cultural landscape is based on “cultivation”, and contains deﬁned places, paths and domains which concretize man’s understanding of the natural environment.

在古代建筑中，我们还可以体验到自然元素的其他表象。有无数柱子的爱奥尼克神殿被描述为“神圣的小树林”；而且早期文明的柱厅式（hypostyle hall）神庙经常以“柱林”（forest of columns）的表现加以命名。事实上埃及神庙的柱子系源于植物的造型，如棕桐、纸草(papyrus)和莲。埃及的柱林代表“源自肥沃土壤中的土地和神圣的植物，带给了土地和其子民保护性、恒久性和生计”。一般人对肥沃土壤的理解系将农业形象化。在文化地景中，自然力量是“本土的”(domestic)和生活的事实，由一种人类参与的秩序井然的过程所表达。因此花园是一个场所，在此生活的本质被具体化为一个有机的整体。事实上人对天堂的意义总是一个围合的花园。花园里在自然中为人所熟悉的元素被集聚在一起：果树、花和温顺的水。在中世纪绘画中,花园被描绘成一个充满“生命之树”的完美庭园(hortus conclusus)。喷泉位居中央，由“荒野的”高山森林所环绕。即使是水也被“构筑”，亦即被赋予精确的定义，成为文化地景中的一部分，或将之形象化为一个喷泉。在文化地景中，人"构筑”了大地，同时表现了它潜在的结构成为一个有意义的整体。文化地景以“文明”作为基础，包括了界定的场所、路径和领域，具体化了人对自然的理解。

Orthogonal space, cave-like interior and cultural landscape suggest general comprehensive orders, which to some extent satisfy man’s need for understanding nature as a structured whole, comprising all environmental levels from the artifact to the region. The quest for order, however, above all becomes manifest through the “building” of one of the cosmic orders mentioned in connection with natural place. We understand immediately that the orthogonal space of the Egyptians comprised this aspect, unifying the east-west course of the sun and the south-north direction of the Nile. Moreover the Egyptian over and over again reproduced their general image of heaven and earth in the ﬂoors, walls and ceilings of their temples. We have also reason to believe that the imagined four posts on which the sky rests, are a derivation from an archetypal building with a ﬂat ceiling and a column at each corner. The understanding of the natural environment therefore does not necessarily precede building. The very act of building may become a means to this understanding, and the house may act as a “model” for the cosmic image, at last if a structural similarity is present. We thus realize the fundamental importance of architecture as a means to give man an existential foothold. The Nordic image of the cosmos as a house where the heavenly axis forms the ridge-beam and the Irminsul the northern of the two posts on which it rests, is also a projection of the structure of a simple archetypal house into the cosmic sphere. And the Mediterranean image of a “cosmic cave”, in obviously derived from natural caves as well as artiﬁcial caves such as the Roman Pantheon. In this case, we ﬁnd a reciprocal relationship between the natural and the man-made place.

正交空间，类似洞穴的内部和文化地景暗示一般的综合秩序，在某种程度上满足了人理解自然为一个结构整体的需求，包括了所有的环境层次，由人造物到区域。然而对秩序的企求，尤其是经由建筑物的方式。上述的宇宙秩序与自然场所的关联便很明显地表现出来。我们马上就理解了埃及的正交空间包含了这个观点，结合了太阳东西运行和尼罗河南北走向。而且埃及人一直在神庙的地板、墙面和天花上重现他们对天地的一般性概念。我们也有理由相信天空位居四根假想的柱子上,系源自原型的建筑物而来，平顶天花及四个角落的柱子所形成。因此对自然环境的理解并不一定先于建筑物，建筑物的表现也可能成为认识自然的方法，如果能表达出结构的相似性，住宅还可能成为一个宇宙的意象模式。因此我们理解建筑基本的重要性是给人一个存在的立足点的方法。北欧对宇宙的意象是一幢房子，以天轴形成柱梁 (ridgebeam)而图腾柱置于北向的两根柱子上。同时也是宇宙半球体内一种简单而原型的房子的结构投影，中世纪"宇宙穴”的意象很明显地是来自自然洞穴和人造洞穴。如罗马万神庙(Pantheon)。在这种情况下，我们发现了一个介于自然和人为场所间的互惠关系。

The Romans possessed both the cave-image and the house-image, representing again a meeting of Mediterranean and Nordic elements. In the Pantheon two crossing axes are integrated in the cave-like rotunda, expressing thus that the world is both oriented and “round”. On the urban level the Romans visualized the cosmic order by means of two main streets crossing each other at a right angle; the cardo running north-south and the decumanus east-west. This scheme has been known by many civilizations and was still alive in the Middle Ages. The word “quarter” in connection with cities stems from this division in four parts by the crossing axes. In the Middle Ages whole countries like Ireland and Iceland were divided in four parts. A Mediaeval world map from the 12th or 13th century, shows four symmetrically disposed continents, separated by seas and surrounded by a “mare magnum”. We may also remind in this connection that the Christian basilica with transept is organized around a “crossing”.

罗马所拥有的洞穴意象和房屋意象，再度表现了中世纪和北欧元素的会合。在万神庙中两条交错的轴线被融会在洞穴式圆形建筑(rotunda) 中，因而表达了世界是具方位性同时是“圆的”。在都市层次上，罗马人以二条主要道路所形成的直角将宇宙秩序形象化；天轴(cardo)南北运转，地轴(decumanus)则是东西向。这种体系一直是许多文明所熟悉，直到中世纪仍盛行。连接城市的四个地区 (quarter)即出自交错轴线所形成的四个部分。在中世纪，整个国家像爱尔兰和冰岛都分成四部分。从12世纪至13世纪的中世纪世界地图显示出四块对称配置的陆地，由海洋(mare magnum)所环绕七我们也想起基督教巴西利卡式教堂的翼殿形成了一个“十字”。

Whereas a cosmic order is visualized by means of spatial organization, characters are symbolized through formal articulation. Characters are more intangible than natural “things” and spatial relationships, and demand particular attention from the builder. In fact their concretization presupposes a language of symbolic forms (style). Such a language consists of basic elements which may be varied and combined in diﬀerent ways. In other words it depends on systematic formal articulation. The decisive step in the development of a coherent formal language was taken by the Greeks. We have already pointed out that the Greek achievement consisted in a precise deﬁnition of diﬀerent kinds of natural places, which were related to basic human characters. This deﬁnition meant something more than the meaningful dedication of a particular place to a particular god, although this might have been the ﬁrst step. Primarily it consisted in the building of symbolic structures, temples, which gave the intended character presence. The single temple may be understood as an individual member of a “family”, just as the gods formed a family which symbolized the various roles and interactions of man on earth. The individual diﬀerences within the family were ﬁrst of all expressed by the so-called classical Orders, but also by variations within the Orders as well as combinations of traits from two or more Orders. Our theoretical knowledge of the Orders goes back to the Roman architect Vitruvius. Vitruvius maintains that temples ought to be built in a diﬀerent style according to their dedication, and proceeds by explaining the Orders in terms of human characters. The Doric column “furnishes the proportion of a man’s body, its strength and beauty”. The Ionic is characterized by “feminine slenderness”, whereas the Corinthian “imitates the slight ﬁgure of a maiden”. The articulation of Greek architecture therefore, cannot be understood in merely visual or aesthetic terms. Articulation meant making precise a particular character, and this character, simple or complex, determined every part of the building. In Renaissance architecture articulation was based on the “Vitruvian” tradition. Serlio calls the orders opera di mano, and implies that they represent diﬀerent modes of human existence, while rustication was opera di natura, that is, a symbol of the original forces of the earth. As late as the eighteenth century the classical Orders formed the basis for an exceptionally sensitive treatment of symbolic characterization.

此宇宙秩序由空间的组织加以形象化，特性则由造型的明晰性来象征。特性比自然的“物”和空间关系更容易让人理解，同时需要工匠特别的关注。事实上工匠具体的实现必须有一套象征的造型(式样)语言。此种语言包括了一些基本的元素,他们很可能是多样化的而以不同的方法结合起来。换言之，这种语言系由系统化的造型明确性所决定。在连贯的造型语言发展中，希腊人踏出了决定性的步伐。我们已经指出希腊人的成就在于给和人类基本特性有关的各种不同的自然场所一个准确的定义。这种定义意味着有些事物超乎一个特别场所对特别神有意义的奉献，虽然这种奉献很可能是最早的步骤。最重要的是这种定义包含了建筑物象征性结构，神殿便使得这些有意义的特性可以表现出来。单独的神殿可以被理解成“同族”中的个体成员，正如众神形成一神族，象征凡间人的角色和相互间的关系。在族群中独特的差异首先由所谓古典的柱式(orders) 所表达，而且柱式中的差异以及各种柱式特征的结合也表现出来。我们对柱式理论的知识可追溯至罗马建筑师维特鲁威(Vitruvius)。他主张神殿必须依照供奉对象而采用不同的式样，而且更进一步地以人的特性来解释多立克柱“装饰了人体的比例，人的健壮和美丽”。爱奥尼的特性是“女性的纤细”。而科林斯是“模仿少女苗条的身材”。因此希腊建筑的明确性不能仅以视觉或美学的观点视之,明确性是指使一个特殊的特性能很精确地表达出来，这种简单的或复杂的特性主宰了建筑物的每个部位。文艺复兴建筑中明确性仍以维特鲁威的传统为准。舍利奥(Serlio)宣称柱式为人的表现(opera di mano),意味着柱式表达了人类存在的不同模式。粗面砌石是自然的表现(opera di natura),亦即大地原始力量的一种象征。一直到18世纪，古典柱式为有关象征的特性前所未有的敏感的处理提供了基础。

Architectural history, however, also knows other coherent symbolic languages. In Mediaeval European architecture, a systematic approach to architectural form served the purpose of symbolizing the ordered Christian cosmos. As the Christian world is founded on the spirit as an existential reality, Mediaeval articulation aimed at “dematerialization”, and negated the anthropomorphic classical Orders. Dematerialization was understood as a function of light, as a divine manifestation. We may therefore say that Mediaeval man “built” light, the most intangible of natural phenomena. Since then light has been a primary means of architectural characterization.

从建筑史也可了解其他相关的象征性语言。在中古欧洲建筑中，对建筑造型有系统的研究，具有象征秩序井然的基督宇宙的功能。正如基督世界是建立在以精神作为存在事实的基础上，中世纪的明确性标志在“非物质化”(dematerialization)的表现,忽略了神人同型的古典柱式。非物质化被视为是光线的功能，成为一种神圣的表征。因此我们可以说中世纪的人构筑了光线——最不容易掌握的自然现象。从此以后光线一直是表达建筑特性的主要方式。

In addition to “forces”, order, character and light, the categories of natural understanding also comprise time, which is a basically diﬀerent dimension. Time is not a phenomenon, but the order of phenomenal succession and change. Buildings and settlements, however, are static, apart from certain mobile elements of secondary importance. Nonetheless man has succeeded in “building” time, by translating basic temporal structures into spatial properties18. Primarily life is “movement”, and as such it possesses “direction” and “rhythm”. The path is therefore a fundamental existential symbol which concretizes the dimension of time. Sometimes the path leads to a meaningful goal, where the movement is arrested and time becomes permanence. Another basic symbol which concretizes the temporal dimension is therefore the centre. The archetypal buildings which visualize the concept of centre are the Mal and the enclosure, which often appear in combination. The Mal used by ancient civilizations was usually understood as an axis mundi. At the acropolis, Mal (hill) and enclosure (plateau) are uniﬁed. In ancient architecture we also usually ﬁnd a via sacra which leads to the centre, and which is used for ritual re-enacting of “cosmic” events. In the Christian basilica, path (nave) and goal (altar) are united to symbolize the “Path of Salvation” of Christian doctrine. The basic phenomena of the urban environment, the street and the square, also belong to the categories of path and centre.

我在“力量”之外又加了秩序、特性和光线。理解自然的领域也包括了时间。基本上这是一种完全不相同的向度。时间不是一种现象，而是现象的连续和变化所形成的秩序。不过建筑物和聚落是静态的，除了某些次要而易变动的元素以外。虽然如此，借着转换主要的短暂性结构成为空间的特质,人成功地“构筑”了时间。最主要由于生命是某种 “运行”，好像具有“方向性”和“韵律”似的。因此路径是基本的存在象征，具体化了时间的向度。有时候路径引导人到一个有意义的目标,当运行受阻时，时间变成永恒。因此将短暂性向度加以具体化的另一种基本的象征是中心。原型建筑将中心的概念形象化，成为纪念性矗立和围合，而且经常结合在一起。在古文明中经常被理解为宇宙轴线。在卫城(Acropolis),矗立(山丘) 和围合（台地)结合为一。在古代建筑中，我们也发现一条神圣街道 (via sacra)引导向中心,成为仪礼上重新拟定的“宇宙”事件。在基督教巴西利卡教堂中，路径(正殿)和目标(神坛)结合在一起象征基督教义的"救赎路程”。都市环境的主要现象，街道和广场，也属于路径和中心的领域。

The man-made place visualizes, complements and symbolizes man’s understanding of his environment. In addition it may also gather a number of meanings. Any true settlement is founded on gathering, and the basic forms are the farm, the agricultural village, the urban dwelling, and the town or city. All these places are essentially man-made or “artiﬁcial”, but they fall into two distinct categories. The ﬁrst two are directly related to the land, that is, they form part of a particular environment, and their structure is determined by this environment. In the urban dwelling and the town as a whole, instead, the direct relation to the natural environment is weakened or almost lost, and gathering becomes a bringing together of forms which have their roots in other localities. This is the essential property of the urban settlement. The main historical cities are therefore hardly found in places where a particular natural character is revealed (such as Delphi or Olympia), but somewhere between these places. Thereby they become comprehensive centres for a world which comprises a multitude of meanings. By moving the natural forces into the settlement, the forces were “domesticated”, and the city became a fact “which helped to liberate man from the terror of the natural world with its dark powers and limiting laws”. In a town such as Priene, the main gods are brought together and located, according to their particular nature, within the urban area, transforming thus the town into a meaningful microcosmos. But also the other buildings, public as well as private, are articulated by means of the classical Orders, and are thus related to the same system of meanings. It goes without saying that the gathering function of the town determines a complex internal structure, an urban “inside”. The same holds true for the house, which Alberti called a “small city”.

人为场所将人对环境的理解加以形象化、补充和象征化。此外人为场所也集结了许多意义。任何真实的聚落都表现在聚集，而其主要的形式是农庄。农业村落、都市住所以及市镇或城市。所有这些场所本质上都是人为的或“人造的”,不过可区分为两种显著的范畴。前面两种是直接与土地产生关联，亦即，塑造了特殊环境的要素，且它们的结构即由这种环境所决定。而都市住所与城镇则好像一个整体，然而，其与自然环境直接的关系，不是很微弱便是几乎丧失。而聚集（gathering）变成将具有其他地方性根源的造型加以结合。这便是都市聚落的主要特质。因此重要的历史性城市几乎很难在表露出特殊自然特性的场所中发掘（如德尔菲或奥林匹亚）。不过有些城市则介于这些场所中。因此这些场所变成是包容各种意义的世界里所具有的广阔的中心。借着自然力量移入聚落中，使得力量得以“被驯服”而且城市变成了一项 “协助将人由惧怕自然世界所具有的黑暗神秘力量以及限制活动的律法中解放出来” 的事实。在城镇例如波利纳（Priene）中，主要的众神被结合在一起，同时依据他们特殊的本质在都市区域中加以安置，将城镇转换成一个有意义的小宇宙。不过也有其他公共或私密的建筑物，被古典柱式的使用所清晰表达，因此和相同的意义系统有关。不可否认的是，城镇的聚集功能决定了一个复杂的内在结构，即一个都市的“内部”。这对于被阿尔伯蒂（Alberti）称为“小城市”的住宅也同样有效。

Through building, man-made places are created which possess their individual genius loci. This genius is determined by what is visualized, complemented, symbolized or gathered. In vernacular architecture the man-made genius loci ought to correspond closely to that of the natural place, in urban architecture, instead, it is more comprehensive. The genius loci of a town, thus, ought to comprise the spirit of the locality to get “roots”, but it should also gather contents of general interest, contents which have their roots elsewhere, and which have been moved by means of symbolization. Some of these contents (meanings) are so general that they apply to all places.

透过建筑物，具有独特场所精神的人为场所被创造出来。这种精神系取决于如何形象化、补充、象征化或聚集。在风土建筑中，人为场所的精神必须和自然场所有密切的关联，而在都市建筑中则比较泛化。因此城镇的场所精神必须包含地域的精神以求其根源,不过场所精神也应该聚集基于普遍利益的内容、扎根于他处的内容和通过符号化手段被转移的内容。某些内容（意义）由于非常普遍化，因此可以应用于所有的场所。

2. The Structure of Man-made Place

The term “man-made place” denotes a series of environmental levels, from villages and towns down to houses and their interiors. All these “places” begin their “presencing” (being) from the boundaries. We have already pointed out that the “presencing” thereby deﬁned, in principle implies particular relationships to the ground and to the sky. A general introduction to the structure of man-made places therefore has to investigate these relationships with regard to the diﬀerent environmental levels. How does a building stand and rise? (Evidently “standing” here comprises lateral extension and contact with the surroundings by means of openings). How is a settlement related to its environment, and how is its silhouette? Questions of this kind put the matter of structure in concrete terms, and give the phenomenology of architecture a realistic basis.

2、人为场所的结构

“人为场所”一词表示一系列的环境层次，从村庄、市镇到住宅和其内部。所有的这些“场所”始于边界的“存在”。我们已经指出这种“存在”系由暗示与地表和天空间特殊关系的原则加以定义。因此要对人为场所之结构作一般性的介绍就必须以各种环境层次为理论探究这些关系。一幢建筑物何以站立和耸起？(事实上“站立”在此包含了横向的扩展，同时利用开口和周遭接触)。一个聚落如何与环境产生关联，而其外形又如何呢？这种问题使结构成为具体的术语，也使得建筑现象学有一个实际的基准。

The distinctive quality of any man-made place is enclosure, and its character and spatial properties are determined by how it is enclosed. Enclosure, thus, may be more or less complete, openings and implied directions may be present, and the capacity of the place varies accordingly. Enclosure primarily means a distinct area which is separated from the surroundings by means of a built boundary. It may also be manifest in less strict form as a dense cluster of elements, where a continuous boundary is inferred rather than positively present. An “enclosure” may even be created by a mere change in the texture of the ground.

任何人为场所最明显的品质就是围合（enclosure），其特性和空间的特质系取决于如何包被。围合可以是非常完全或不很完全,开口部和隐含的方向性都可能存在,场所的包容性便因而有所不同。围合主要表示一个特殊的区域借建筑边界从周遭中分离出来。围合也可能出现在比较不严格的造型中；譬如密集簇群元素中，连续的边界是含蓄而非强烈地显现。“围合”甚至可以仅仅由地表肌理的变化创造出来。

The cultural importance of deﬁning an area which is qualitatively diﬀerent from the surroundings, cannot be overestimated. The temenos is the archetypal form of meaningful space, and constitutes the point of departure for human settlement. In Japan, as has been shown by Günter Nitschke, basic cultural phenomena of various kinds were derived from the process of land demarcation. The landmarks themselves were bundles of grass or reeds which were bound together in the middle to form a fan-like artifact which visualizes a separation of earth and heaven (bottom and top). A three-dimensional “cosmos” was thus deﬁned within the given chaos. Nitschke furthermore points out that the very word for (enclosed) land, shima, was derived from the name of the land occupation mark, shime, and reminds us of a parallel connection of words in the German Marke (mark, sign) and Mark (land, e.g.Denmark). We may add that several Nordic terms for an enclosed “inside”, town, tun (norw.), týn (czech) are derived from Zaun, that is, “fence”, vallis, “valley”, goes together with vallum, “wall”, “palisade”, and vallus, “pole”. Indeed the enclosure began its presencing from the boundary. These “how” of the enclosure depends upon the concrete properties of the boundaries. The boundaries determine the degree of enclosure (“openness”) as well as the spatial direction, which are two aspects of the same phenomenon. When an opening is introduced in a centralized enclosure, an axis is created which implies longitudinal movement. We ﬁnd such a combination of enclosure and longitudinality already at Stonehenge, where the “altar” is moved away from the geometrical centre in relation to the processional path which enters the area from the north-east. The spatial structures developed during the history of architecture are always in one way or the other based on centralization and longitudinality and their combinations. The general signiﬁcance of the concepts of centre and path is thus conﬁrmed, but the particular ways of using these themes are to a high extent locally determined. Centralization and longitudinality are often emphasized by the upper boundary of the space, for instance by a hemispherical dome or a barrel vault. The ceiling may thus determine and visualize the internal spatial structure. In general the presence of a ceiling deﬁnes the particular kind of enclosures known as “interior space”. When there is no ceiling, the sky acts as the upper boundary, and the space is, in spite of lateral boundaries, part of “exterior space”. An enclosed space which is lit from above therefore oﬀers a strange experience of being inside and outside at the same time.

在界定一种性质上不同于周遭环境的区域时,不应该过度地重视文化的重要性。神圣的境域(tememos) 是有意义的空间的原型造型，形成人类聚落的出发点。正如尼希克 (Gunter Nitschke)指出日本的各种文化现象,系源自土地划界(land demarkation)的过程。地标本身是草或芦苇所形成的捆束，草或芦苇结合在中间形成一种扇状的人造物，形象化了大地与苍穹的分离(底和顶)。一种三向度的“宇宙”因而在既有的混乱中被界定出来。尼希克更指出最能表达(围合的)土地的字眼，岛(shima)，是源自对土地占有的记号所给予的命名。岛让我们想起了德语中的Marke (记号，标志)和Mark (土地，例如Demark丹麦) 之间类似的关系。关于围合的“内部”我们可以再举出许多北欧的用语，例如城镇，tun (挪威语)， týn (捷克语)，系源自Zaun,亦即“藩篱”，“山谷” (Vallis)和“墙” (Vallum)”，“断崖”以及“柱” (Vallus)结合在一起。围合确实始自其边界的出现。实现怎样的围合依赖于边界明确的特质。边界决定了围合 (开口部)的程度和空间方向，是相同现象的两种方面。当开口被引进一个集中的围合时，暗示着纵向的运行。我们发觉这种围合和纵向性的结合，早就出现在史前巨石群(Stonehenge),在那里“祭坛”自几何中心移开，以配合圣歌游行的路径，由东北方向进入此地区。空间结构在建筑史上的发展，总是基于集中性、纵向性或两者结合的途径。路径和中心的概念具有普遍的重要性因而获得肯定，不过运用这些主题的特殊方法则绝大部分得由地方性所决定。集中性和纵向性经常由空间的上方边界所决定，例如半圆形的圆顶或桶状的穹顶。因此天花可能决定或形象化内部的空间结构。一般而言，天花界定了特殊种类的围合，即为人所熟悉的“内部空间”。没有天花时，天空即扮演上方边界的角色，空间虽然有横向边界，还是属于“外部空间”的一部分。因此空间的光线若来自上方便有一种既是内部和外部的奇怪感受。

The main urban elements are centres and paths. A square obviously functions as a centre and a street as a path. As such they are enclosures; their spatial identity in fact depends upon the presence of relatively continuous lateral boundaries. In addition to centre and path, we have introduced the word domain to denote a basic type of enclosure. An urban district is such a domain, and again we ﬁnd that the presence of a boundary is of decisive importance. A district, thus, is either deﬁned by conspicuous edges of some kind, or at least by a change in urban texture which implies a boundary. In combination, centres, paths and domains may form complex totalities which serve man’s need for orientation. Of particular interest are the cases when a centre generates a domain, or “ﬁeld”, to use the word of Paolo Portoghesi. This happens for instance when a circular piazza is surrounded by a concentric system of streets. The properties of a “ﬁeld” are hence determined by the centre, or by a regular repetition of structural properties. When several ﬁelds interact, a complex spatial structure results, of varying density, tension and dynamism.

都市主要的元素是中心和路径。广场很显然扮演一个中心的角色，街道则是路径。如此一来便被围合起来，空间的认同事实上是由相对之下是连续的横向边界所决定。除了路径和中心之外，我们还介绍过领域 (domain)一词，用以表达围合的基本形态。都市的市区就是一个领域。而且我们又发现边界具有决定性的重要性。因此市区若不是由某种醒目的边界所界定，至少也是由表示边界的都市质感的变化所形成。中心、路径和领域的结合可能塑造岀复杂的整体，以符合人类对方向性的需求。以波多盖西的话来说，人最关心的是一个中心衍生的领域，或“场”。这种情形就好像一个圆形的广场被集中或系统的街道所环绕一样。一个“场”的特质是由中心，或一个规则而重复的结构的特质所决定。许多场相互作用时将产生复杂的空间结果，各式各样的密度、张力和动态感。

Centre, path and domain are general and abstract concepts, which translate the Gestalt principles into architectural terms. More concrete are certain archetypal conﬁgurations which are generated by these principles, or rather: which may be classiﬁed as centres, paths or domains. In architectural history, thus, we encounter centralized forms such as the rotunda and the regular polygons, which generate three-dimensional volumes. Le Corbusier still considered the sphere, the cube, the pyramid and the cylinder the elements of architectural form. The basic longitudinal forms stem from an organization of space around a curved or straight line, and are equally important in buildings and towns. As built domains we may, ﬁnally, consider all kinds of clusters and groups of spaces or buildings. Whereas the cluster is based on simple proximity of the elements, and shows relatively indeterminate spatial relationships, the word “group” is mostly used to denote a regular, possibly geometrical, two- or three-dimensional spatial organization. The importance of the archetypal conﬁgurations is conﬁrmed by the fact that towns and villages in any part of the world either belong to the centralized, the longitudinal or the clustered type. In German the types are known as Rundling, Reihendorf and Haufendorf. Two spatial patterns of particular interest are the grid and the labyrinth. The grid is an “open”, orthogonal infrastructure of paths, which may be ﬁlled in with buildings in diﬀerent ways. The labyrinth instead, is characterized by a lack of straight and continuous paths, and a high density. It is the traditional Arabic settlement pattern.

中心、路径和领域是一般性和抽象的概念，以建筑术语便能说明完形原理。更具体地说便是某种原型的形态系由这些原理所衍生，甚至可加以区分为中心、路径或领域。在建筑史中，我们看过集中的造型，例如圆形建筑和规则的多角形所衍生的三向度体量。柯布西耶视球体、方体、角锥体和圆柱体为建筑造型的元素。基本的纵向造型系源自围绕一个曲线或直线的空间组织，在建筑物和城镇中这些造型仍具有同样的重要性。最后在建立建筑物领域时，我们可以考虑各种空间或建筑物的集群(clusters) 和群组(groups)。集群是基于这些元素间的相似性而形成，同时表现出难以捉摸的空间关系。“群组”多半用于暗示一种规则的、可能是几何形的、二向度或三向度的空间组织。世界上任何地方的城镇和村庄要么属于集中型，要么属于纵向型，要么属于群集型，这就证明了原型构型的重要性。德国所常见的形态是放射村落(Rundling)、独街村落(Reihendorf)以及簇群村落(Haufendorf)。网格和迷宫是两种特别值得关注的空间模式。网格是一种 “开放 ”的、正交的道路基础设施，可以用不同的方式将建筑物填满。迷宫的特点则是缺乏笔直和连续的道路，而且密度很高。是阿拉伯传统的居住模式。

The character of a man-made place is to a high extent determined by its degree of “openness”. The solidity or transparency of the boundaries make the space appear isolated or as part of a more comprehensive totality. We here return to the inside-outside relationship which constitutes the very essence of architecture. A place may thus be an isolated refuge, whose meaning is due to the presence of symbolic elements, it may communicate with an “understood” concrete environment, or be related to an ideal, imagined world. The last case is found in the “double-shell” spaces of late Baroque architecture, where the inside proper is embedded in a luminous zone which symbolizes the omnipresence of Divine Light. Zones of transition may also be used to relate the internal structure of the place to the structure of the natural or man-made environment. We may in this context again remind of Robert Venturi, who says: “Architecture occurs at the meeting of interior and exterior forces of use and space”. Evidently this meeting is expressed in the wall, and in particular in the openings which connect the two “domains”.

人为场所的特性绝大部分由“开放”的程度而定。边界的坚固性和透明性使得空间变成孤立的或较广阔的整体中的一部分。在此我们重新回到了内部和外部的关系，这种关系构成了建筑最主要的本质。所以一个场所可以是一个孤立的庇护所，它的意义在于象征元素的存在，场所可以和一个“为人所理解”的环境相沟通，也和理想与想象的世界有关联。最后的情形可见于晚期巴洛克建筑的“双壳”(double-shell)空间中；内部本身埋藏在光亮地区，象征无所不在的神光。过渡的区域往往也使得场所内部结构与自然结构或人为环境发生关系。在此空间脉络中，我们又想起了文丘里的话：“建筑发生在使用和空间的内部与外部力量的交汇处”。这交汇处很显然体现在墙壁上，尤其是连接两个“领域”的开口处。

A man-made place, however, is something more than a space with a varying degree of openness. As a building, it stands on the ground, and rises towards the sky. The character of the place is to a high extent determined by how this standing and rising is concretized. This also holds true for entire settlements,such as towns. When a town pleases us because of its distinct character, it is usually because a majority of its buildings are related to the earth and the sky in the same way; they seem to express a common form of life, a common way of being on the earth. us they constitute a genius loci which allows for human identiﬁcation.

不过人为场所不仅仅是有各种不同开口部的空间而已。一幢建筑物，站立在地面上，升向天空。这个场所的特征在很大程度上取决于如何将这种矗立和上升具体化。这对于整个聚落，如城镇，仍是有效的。当一个城镇因其鲜明的特征而让我们感到愉悦时，通常是因为它的大多数建筑都以同样的方式与大地和天空联系在一起；他们好像表达一种共同的生命形式，一种在大地上存有的共同方式。所以构成了场所精神，斟酌着人类的认同感。

The “how” of a building comprises a general and particular aspect. In general any building possesses a concrete structure (Gerüst) which may be described in formal-technical terms, and in particular an individual articulation of this structure. An archetypal building in this sense is a house whose primary structure consists of a ridge-beam carried by a (gabled) post at either end. Such a house possesses a clear, easily imageable order, which in ancient times helped man to gain a feeling of security. This fact is conﬁrmed by the etymology and relationship of the terms which denote the various parts of the structure. The word “ridge”, thus, in general means the crest of something, and in particular a chain of mountains. The corresponding Norwegian word ås means “hill” and “god” as well as the ridge of the house. The German First has many connotations, among which Forst is particularly interesting, as it denotes an enclosed area in general. Of primary importance in the structure is the point where the horizontal and vertical members are connected, the “gable”. In the Middle Ages the German world Giebel meant gable as well as the poles of the sky. Here we return again to the relationship between house and cosmic order, which was discussed above. What is important to stress in this context however, is that the meaning of a building is related to its structure. Meaning and character cannot be interpreted in purely formal or aesthetic terms, but are, as we have already pointed out, intimately connected with making. Heidegger in fact deﬁnes the “method” of art as inswerk-setzen (to “set-into-work”).This is the meaning of architectural concretization: to set a place into work, in the sense of concrete building. The character of a work of architecture is therefore ﬁrst of all determined by the kind of construction used; whether it is skeletal, open and transparent (potentially or in fact), or massive and enclosed. And secondly by the making as such: binding, joining, erecting etc. These processes express how the meaning of the work becomes a “thing”.Thus Mies van der Rohe said: “Architecture starts when you put two bricks carefully upon each other”.

一幢建筑物的“如何”包含普遍的和特殊两个方面。一般而言，任何建筑物都有一个具体的结构(Gerust),可以利用造型技术的术语，尤其是这种结构独特的明晰性来加以描述。在这种观点下，一幢原型建筑物是一间房子,其主要的结构是柱梁和两端(有山墙的)柱子所组成。这样的房子都有一种清晰而易于理解的秩序，在古代帮助人类获得了安全感。这一事实可以从表示房屋结构各部分的词源和关系中得到证实。“大梁” (ridge)常是指某种事物的峰顶，特别是一连串的高山。挪威语的相关词汇ås意为“山丘”和“神” ,也指房子的屋脊。德语中的“First”(山脊)有许多含义，其中以“Forst”(森林)最有趣，暗示一般性的包被区域。结构中最重要的是水平和垂直构件交会处，即“山墙”。在中古时期德语的“Giebel” 既指屋檐，也指天空的两极，因此我们又回到前述的房子与宇宙秩序的关系。不过在此脉络中必须强调建筑物的意义是与其结构相关联的。意义和特性不能只以造型或美学的观点来说明，而是要像我们所指出的，紧紧地和创作过程发生关系。事实上海德格尔定义艺术的"方法”乃付诸实施(inswerk-setzen)。此乃建筑具体化的意义：在具体的建筑物的意念下使一个场所发挥作用。因此一件建筑作品的特性最主要由其所运用的构造方式所决定；框架式、开放式和透明式(潜在的或明显的)，还是巨大的包被式。其次才由营建方式所定，例如：镶嵌、接合、矗立等。这些过程表达了作品成为“物”所代表的意义为何。因此密斯(Mies van der Rohe)说：“建筑始于你将两块砖小心翼翼地摆放在一起时”。

Making is an aspect of articulation. The other aspect is “form”. Articulation determines how a building stands and rises, and how it receives light. The word “stand” denotes its relationship to the earth, and “rise” its relationship to the sky. Standing is concretized through the treatment of the base and the wall. A massive and perhaps concave base and accentuated horizontals “tie” the building to the ground, whereas an emphasis on the vertical direction tends to make it “free”. Vertical lines and forms express an active relationship to the sky and a wish for receiving light. Verticalism and religious aspiration have in fact always gone together. In the wall, thus, earth and sky meet, and the way man “is” on earth is concretized by the solution of this meeting. Some buildings are “ground-hugging”, others rise freely, and in others again we ﬁnd a meaningful equilibrium. Such an equilibrium is for instance found in the Doric temple, where the details and the proportions of the columns express that they stand and rise. By means of subtle variations in the treatment, the Greeks could express signiﬁcant nuances within the general equilibrium. In the ﬁrst Hera temple in Paestum the strong entasis of the columns as well as other details brings us close to the earth, in accordance with the character of the goddess. In the temple of Apollo in Corinth, instead, entasis is entirely abolished to express the more abstract, intellectual strength of the god.

营建方式是一种明晰性的观点。另一种观点是“造型”。连接决定了一幢建筑物如何站立、耸起以及如何采光。“站立”是表示与大地的关系，“耸起”则表示建筑物与天空的关系。站立经由基座和墙的处理方式而具体化。一个巨大的和可能内凹的基座与强调水平感将建筑物“束缚”在大地上，而强调垂直方向则往往会使建筑变得“自由”。垂直线条和造型表达了与天空主动的关系以及对采光的渴望。垂直主义和宗教热忱是相互结合的。天地在墙壁交会，而人类存于大地之上的方法则以此交会的解决方式而具体化。有些建筑物是“贴地”(ground-hugging)的；也有自由耸立的，同时也有的是很有意义的平衡状态。这种平衡状态可见于多立克式神殿，柱子的细部和比例表达了站立与高耸。透过微妙差异的处理手法，希腊人能够在整体的平衡中表达出细微的差别。在派斯顿(Paestum)第一座赫拉神殿中，柱子强烈的收分(emasis)以及其他的细部，让人有接近大地的感受，符合神的特性。相反的，在科瑞斯(Corith)的阿波罗神殿，完全放弃收分，以表达该神比较抽象而理智的力量。

A meaningful relationship between horizontals and verticals also depends on the form of the roof. Flat or sloping roofs, gables, domes and pointed spires express diﬀerent relations to earth and sky, and determine the general character of the building. In his houses, Frank Lloyd Wright wanted simultaneously to express belonging to the earth and “freedom” in space. Thus he composed the building of planes of “inﬁnite” extension parallel to the ground, but introduced a vertical core as well as low-hipped roofs to give it an anchorage. The (horizontal) freedom in space is also concretized by an opening up of the walls by means of bands of glass. The wall is no longer there to enclose space, but rather to direct it and to achieve a uniﬁcation of inside and outside.

水平感和垂直感之间的关系也由屋顶造型所决定。平顶或斜屋顶、山形、圆顶和尖塔形表达出与大地和天空各种不同的关系，也决定了建筑物的一般特性。在赖特的住宅中，他想同时表达对大地的归属以及在空间中的“自由性”。所以他将建筑物中平行于地面无限延伸的平版加以组织，而且引入了一个垂直的核心和坡度小的屋顶，使其具有锚固性。空间中的(水平的)自由性也由墙上的开口以玻璃带的方式具体表达。墙在这里不再是要形成围合的空间，转而引导空间的方向，使内部与外部结合在一起。

In general openings serve to concretize diﬀerent inside-outside relationships. “Holes” in a massive wall give emphasis to enclosure and interiority, whereas the ﬁlling in of a skeletal wall by large surfaces of glass “de-materialize” the building and create an interaction between exterior and interior. Openings also receive and transmit light, and are therefore main determinants of architectural character. Large-scale environments are often characterized by particular types of windows and doors, which thereby become motifs which condense and visualize the local character. Finally, it ought to be mentioned that material and colour may contribute decisively to characterization. Stone, brick and wood are diﬀerent “presences” which express the way buildings “are” on earth. In Florence, for instance, rusticated stone was used to concretize a rational, “built” environment possessing “classical” substance and order. In Siena, instead, the use of continuous “de-materialized” brick surfaces create an atmosphere of Mediaeval spirituality. It goes without saying that the choice of material and colour is intimately linked with “making” in general, although a certain independence may be meaningful, as when built walls are painted in colours which have a mere characterizing function. A “freedom” of this kind is obviously more common in enclosed interior spaces, where the direct contact with the environment is weaker, and where character therefore implies a gathering of “distant” meanings.

一般而言开口部扮演着将不同的内部与外部的关系加以具体化的角色，“洞”(holes)在量感的墙上强调出围合与内部性。因此在框架式墙上以大面玻璃填塞，使建筑“非物质化”,创造了介于外部和内部间的互动。开口部吸收并传递阳光，因而成为建筑特性主要的决定因素。在大尺度的环境中，经常是由特殊形态的窗和门决定其特性。因此窗和门变成装饰主题，浓缩并形象化地方性的特性。最后必须说明材料和颜色可能对特性的形成有决定性的影响。石头、砖和木头有不同的表情，表达了建筑物存于大地上的方式。例如在佛罗伦萨，粗面石头用以表达一种理性的、构筑的环境所具有的“古典的”本质和秩序。相反的，在锡耶纳则采用连续的“非物质化”面砖表面创造出一种中世纪神圣的灵性气氛。材料和颜色的选择毋鹰置疑地与其一般“施工”息息相关，虽然某种独立性也可能是有意义的，就像是在建筑物的墙壁上涂油漆，颜色就只具有表达特性的功能而已。这种“自由性”很显然在包被的内部空间将更为普遍，由于内部与环境直接的接触较微弱，因此内部的特性意味着“深远”意义的集聚。

It would in this context carry us too far to develop a systematic typology of man-made places. We have already mentioned the farm, the village, the urban house and the town as primary categories. A further diﬀerentiation ought to be based on the various “building-tasks” which make up a human settlement. It ought to be repeated, however, that man-made places form a hierarchy of environmental levels. The settlement as a whole is externally related to a natural or cultural landscape by which it is contained. Internally the settlement contains sub-places such as squares, streets and districts (“quarters”). These sub-places again contain and are deﬁned by buildings serving diﬀerent purposes. Within the buildings we ﬁnd the interior spaces, in the common sense of the word. The interior contains artifacts which deﬁne an innermost goal (such as the altar of a church, or the table in Trakl’s poem). The structural properties of the various levels as well as their formal interrelations, concretize the “form of life” as a whole, in an individual as well as a social sense. We shall later introduce the concepts of “private” and “public” to arrive at a fuller understanding of the place as a “living” totality.

在此脉络下与企图发展出一套有关人为场所系统化的地形学相去太远。我们已说明了农庄、村落、都市住宅和城镇是主要的范畴。更进一步的分类必须依照各种建立人类聚落的“建筑物的任务”而定。然而我们必须重复人为场所塑造了环境层次的体系。若将聚落视为一个整体，就外部而言，是与自然或文化地景的内容有关。就内部而言，聚落包括了次场所，如广场、街道和市区。这些次场所又包含许多具有不同功能的建筑物。在建筑物中我们又发现了内部空间,就该字的一般性意义而言。内部所包含的人造物界定了内在的目标（如教堂的祭坛或特拉克尔诗里的桌子）。各种不同层次的结构特质以及他们在造型上相互间的关系，使得“生命形式”在个体及社会的观点下能够成为一个整体。稍后我们将介绍“私密性”和“公共性”的概念，以期完全理解场所为一个“活生生的”整体。

Structurally, orientation and identiﬁcation means the experience of man-made place within man-made place. The diﬀerent “insides” are “known” in accordance with their structural properties. In most settlements in fact we ﬁnd that the naming of the urban spaces reﬂects the existence of distinct man-made places which have a structurally determined identity. The man-made genius loci depends on how these places are in terms of space and character, that is, in terms of organization and articulation.

就结构上而言,方向性和识别性意味着在人为场所中对其的体验。不同的“内部”系因其结构特质而为人所“察觉”。事实上在大多数的聚落中，能发现都市空间的命名清楚反映出不同人为场所的存在，这种人为场所的精神取决于在空间和特征方面的情况，也就是在组织和衔接方面的情况。

3. The Spirit of Man-Made Place

Our discussion of the phenomena of man-made place has uncovered several basic types of man-made factors, which helped our understanding of the structure of man-made place, as well as its relationship to natural place. Any concrete situation is distinguished by a particular combination of these factors which constitute the genius loci as an integrated totality. There are man-made places where the variety and mystery of the natural forces are strongly felt, there are places where the manifestation of an abstract general order has been the main intention, and there are places where force and order have found a comprehensible equilibrium. We thus return to the categories of “romantic”, “cosmic” and “classical”. Although these categories are abstractions which are hardly concretized in “pure” form, they express concrete tendencies, and therefore serve a general understanding of the spirit of place. Any concrete situation may in fact be understood as a synthesis of these basic categories. Using the word “architecture” to denote the concretization of man-made places in general, we may hence talk about “romantic architecture”, “cosmic architecture”, and “classical architecture”.

3、人为场所的精神

我们对人为场所现象的讨论，揭示了许多人为因素的基本形态。对于理解人为场所的结构以及与自然场所的关系非常有帮助。任何具体的情境所以能与众不同系由这些因素特殊的结合而形成场所精神，如同一个整合的整体。在一些场所，人们能很强烈地感受到神秘多样的自然力量；有的场所主要的意图则是表现抽象的一般性秩序；而有些场所的力量与秩序则达成一种易于理解的平衡状态。因此我们又回到了“浪漫式”“宇宙式”“古典式”的范畴。虽然这些范畴是抽象的,很难以“纯粹的”形式具体表达，不过他们表现出具体的意图，因此可以对场所精神有一般性的理解。任何具体的情境事实上都可以用这些基本范围的综合来加以理解。一般以“建筑”来表示人为场所的具体化，所以我们可以谈论“浪漫式建筑”“宇宙式建筑”和“古典式建筑”。

Romantic architecture

As “romantic” we designate an architecture distinguished by multiplicity and variety. It cannot easily be understood in logical terms, but seems irrational and “subjective” (although the inherent meanings may be of general value). Romantic architecture is characterized by a strong “atmosphere”, and may appear “phantastic” and “mysterious”, but also “intimate” and “idyllic”. In general it is distinguished by a live and dynamic character, and aims at “expression”. Its forms seem to be a result of “growth” rather than organization, and resemble the forms of living nature.

浪漫式建筑

我们以“浪漫式”称呼具有多样性的建筑。以逻辑的观点并不是很容易理解的，似乎是“不理性的”和“主观的”(虽然原有的意义可能是一般性的价值观)。浪漫式建筑的特性具有一般强烈的“气氛”，可能是“幻想的”和“神秘的”同时也是“亲密的”和“田园的”。浪漫式建筑通常以活泼而动态的特性著名，且志在“表现”。它的造型似乎是一种“成长”的结果而非出自组织，类似生命本质的造型。

Romantic space is topological rather than geometrical. On the urban level this means that the basic conﬁgurations are the dense and indeterminate cluster and the “free” and varied row. The urban spaces are distinguished by irregular enclosure, and contain functions in a general way, without aiming at regular, deﬁned distribution. “Strong” romantic spaces and conﬁgurations demand a continuous but geometrically indeterminate boundary. In relation to the surroundings the romantic settlement is identiﬁed by the proximity of its elements, or by general enclosure.

浪漫式空间是地形的空间而非几何的空间。在都市层次上意味着基本的形态是密集和不确定的簇群，而且是“自由的”和多样化的排列。都市空间以不规则的包被著称，同时以一般的方式包含机能，并非一味地追求不规则的、界定的分布。强烈的浪漫式空间和形态需要一个连续的和在几何上不确定的边界。对于周遭而言，浪漫式聚落由其元素的相似性或共同的围合而获得认同。

The “atmosphere” and expressive character of romantic architecture is obtained by means of formal complexity and contradiction. Simple, intelligible volumes are avoided and transformed into transparent, skeletal structures, where the line becomes a symbol of force and dynamism. Although the construction as such may be logical, it usually appears irrational due to the multiplication of members, variation in detailing, and introduction of “free” ornament. e outside-inside relationship is usually complex, and the romantic building and settlement are characterized by a serrate and “wild” silhouette. Light is used to emphasize variety and atmosphere rather than comprehensible elements. Usually it has a strong local quality, which may be stressed through the application of particular colours.

浪漫式建筑的“气氛”和表现性的特性是以造型的复杂与矛盾的方式获得。简单而易于理解的体量被摒弃，转换成透明的框架式结构，线条成为力量和动态的象征。虽然这些构造可能合乎逻辑但经常显得不理性，因为多样化的部件在细部上的变化和“自由的”装饰介入的缘故。内部和外部的关系经常是错综复杂的。浪漫式建筑物和聚落具有不规则的和“野性”轮廓的特性。光线被用来强调多样性和气氛，而非一种可理解的元素。阳光经常有强烈的地方性特色，可以运用特殊的颜色加以强调。

The Mediaeval town is the romantic settlement par excellence, particularly in Central Europe, where classical inﬂuence (natural or historical) is less strongly felt than for instance in Italy. The Mediaeval town makes its presence visible in towers and spires, and its spaces are characterized by the pointed gables of the houses, as well as by rich irrational detail. According to the natural environment the character varies, from the “wild-romantic” Alpine settlement to the idyllic interaction of buildings and surroundings in Northern Germany and Denmark. In Innsbruck, for instance, the houses are heavy and massive down at the ground with low and mysterious arcades, but they rise towards the sky with stepped and undulating gables. In a northern town like Celle, the gabled houses become skeletal and are transformed into an atmospheric play of colours. In Norway, ﬁnally, the Nordic character culminates in the eminently romantic structures of the stave-church and the lof, and in the white-painted houses which concretize the luminosity of the Nordic summer night. The summer night in fact became part of man’s built environment when the colour white was invented. Before, the houses were dark, reﬂecting the mystery of the winter sky, which is also the light of the stave-church interior. In the stave-church it makes sense to talk about “dark light”, as a Divine manifestation.

中世纪城镇是浪漫式聚落的代表,尤其是中欧，那里受古典的影响（自然的或历史的）没有像意大利那么强烈。中世纪城镇的塔楼和尖顶彰显了它的存在，房屋的尖顶屋檐以及丰富的非理性细节是它的空间特征。从“野性而浪漫的”阿尔卑斯山聚落到德国北方和丹麦的建筑物与周遭田园式的互动,特性依照自然环境而改变。例如，在因斯布鲁克 ,低深而神秘的拱廊使得房子在地面上显得厚重而巨大，并以阶梯状和起伏的山墙耸向天空。在北方的城镇如策勒，房屋变成了镂空的骨架，同时被转换成一种颜色的气氛游戏。在挪威梯状的教堂和阁楼，卓越的浪漫式结构将北欧的特性表现得淋漓尽致。粉刷成白色的住宅具体地表达了北欧夏天光明的傍晚。当白色被创造出来时，夏天的傍晚事实上成为人所构筑的环境的一部分。阴沉的房子反映出冬天天空的神秘性，这同时也是梯状教堂内部的光线。在梯状教堂里“阴暗的光线”是具有意义的，如同神的显现一样。

In more recent architecture, the romantic character is fully present and wonderfully interpreted in the Art Nouveau. Later it appears, in a diﬀerent key, in the “forest” architecture of Alvar Aalto, diﬀerently again, in the works of Hugo Häring, who aimed at making an organhaf architecture, that is, buildings which are “organs” to the functions they serve, like the organs of our body. Thereby Häring gave the romantic approach an actual deﬁnition. In general, the multiplicity and variety of romantic architecture is uniﬁed by a basic Stimmung, which corresponds to particular formative principles. Romantic architecture is therefore eminently local.

在比较近代的建筑中，浪漫特性在新艺术运动中充分地表达出来，同时获得了精彩的诠释。后来，它以另一种方式出现在阿尔瓦·阿尔托的“森林”建筑中，又以再一种方式出现在雨果·黑林的作品中，他志在创造有机建筑，也即建筑是满足功能的“器官”，好像我们身体的器官一样。因此黑林给浪漫化思路一个真正的定义。一般而言，浪漫式建筑的多样化由某种基本的气氛所统合，这种气氛符合特殊的造型原则。因此浪漫式建筑是最具有地方特色的。

Cosmic architecture

As “cosmic” we designate an architecture distinguished by uniformity and “absolute” order. It can be understood as an integrated logical system, and seems rational and “abstract”, in the sense of transcending the individual concrete situation. Cosmic architecture is distinguished by a certain lack of “atmosphere”, and by a very limited number of basic characters. It is neither “phantastic” nor “idyllic”, words which denote direct human participation, but remains aloof. Its forms are static rather than dynamic, and seems to be the revelation of a “hidden” order, rather than the result of concrete composition. It aims at “necessity” rather than expression.

宇宙式建筑

以"宇宙式”命名建筑乃因其明显的一致性和“绝对的”秩序。宇宙式建筑可以被视为是一个整合的逻辑系统，就超越个体的具体情境的观点而论，似乎是理性的和“抽象的”。宇宙式建筑以欠缺某种“氛围”而著称，基本特征的数量非常有限。不是象征人类直接参与的“幻想”或“田园”，而是相当的冷淡。其造型是静态的而非动态的，好像吐露了“隐藏的”秩序，而非具体组合的结果。主要的目的是“必要”而非“表现”。

Cosmic space is strictly geometrical and is usually concretized as a regular grid, or as a cross of orthogonal axes (cardo-decumanus). It is uniform and isotropic, although its directions are qualitatively diﬀerent. That is, the qualitative diﬀerences are not expressed as such, but are absorbed by the system. Cosmic space, however, also knows an “inversion” which we may call “labyrinthine space”. The labyrinth does not possess any deﬁned or goal-oriented direction, it rests in itself without beginning and end. Basically it is therefore “cosmic”, although it seems to belong to another spatial family than the grid. “Strong” cosmic spaces demand a clear visualization of the system. In relation to the surroundings it may remain “open”, as it does not take the local microstructure into consideration. The character of cosmic architecture is also distinguished by “abstraction”. Thus it shuns sculptural presence, and tends to dematerialize volumes and surfaces by means of “carpet-like” decoration (mosaic, glazed tiles etc.), or by the introduction of intricate geometrical webs. Horizontals and verticals do not represent active forces, but are put in a simple juxtaposition as manifestations of the general order.

宇宙式空间是极端几何化的，而且经常以规则的网格来表现，或是一种正交轴线（南北向与东西向），其交错是规则而等向性的。虽然它的方向在性质上略有不同，不过性质上的差异并未被表现出来而由系统所吸收。然而宇宙式空间也能以“相反的”角度视之，我们称之为“迷宫空间”。迷宫没有任何界定的或导向目标的方向，迷宫本身是无始无终的。基本上迷宫是属于“宇宙式”，虽然与网格比起来很像是另一个空间家族。“强烈的”宇宙式空间需要一种清晰的形象化系统。对于周遭而言，如果不考虑地方性的微结构，宇宙式空间可能保持“开放的”。宇宙式建筑的特性也以“抽象性”著称。所以放弃雕刻式表现，同时企图以“地毯式”装饰（马赛克、釉面面砖等）或利用复杂的几何网络，使体量和表面非物质化。水平性和垂直性并未表现出主动的力量，而是以一种简单的并置加以处理，成为一般性秩序的表征。

In Islamic architecture the cosmic approach ﬁnds its major manifestation. The Islamic city, thus, consists of a combination of geometrical and labyrinthine space. Whereas the main public buildings are based on an orthogonal grid (Mosque, Medrese, etc.), the residential quarters are labyrinthine, a fact which expresses the desert origin of Islamic culture as well as the social structure of the Arabic settlement, which, after all, are two aspects of the same totality. The “abstract” presence of horizontals and verticals (the Minaret), concretizes the general order, and gives a ﬁrst suggestion of the cosmic character. In interior space this character becomes the manifestation of an ideal world, a paradise of white, green, and blue, that is, the colours of pure light, vegetation and water, which represents the goal of man’s desert voyage.

在伊斯兰建筑中，宇宙式得到了充分的表现。因此伊斯兰城市是几何空间和迷宫空间的结合。主要公共建筑都以正交格子为主（如清真寺），住宅区则是迷宫式，这事实上表达了伊斯兰文化的沙漠根源以及阿拉伯聚落的社会结构，毕竟这是同样的整体中的两个方面。水平性和垂直性（尖塔）的抽象表现，具体化了一般性的秩序，同时为宇宙式特性提出第一个建议。在内部空间这种特性变成理想世界的表征，白色、绿色和蓝色的天堂，亦即纯粹阳光的颜色、植物和水，代表人在沙漠旅程的目标。

But cosmic architecture may be interpreted in other ways. We have already described the absolute systems of the Egyptians and the Romans. The latter is of particular interest in our context, as it was brought along and implanted everywhere regardless of the local circumstances. In general the Romans thereby expressed that every individual place forms part of a comprehensive cosmic (and political!) system which it has to obey. In Roman architecture this order penetrated all levels, down to the interior space of individual buildings. Thus the Roman conquest of the world happened as the manifestation of a preestablished cosmic order, “in agreement with the gods”.

不过宇宙式建筑也可以用另一种方式来诠释。我们已经描述了埃及人和罗马人绝对的系统。在我们的语境中，后者尤其引人关注，因为它被带到并植入各地，不受当地环境的影响。总的来说，罗马人以此表明，每个地方都是一个全面的宇宙（和政治！）体系的一部分，它必须服从这个体系。在罗马建筑中，这种秩序贯穿所有的层次，下至单独建筑物的室内空间。因此，罗马人对世界的征服是“与众神一致”的宇宙秩序的体现。

In modern times, the image of a cosmic order has degenerated into spatial systems which concretize political, social or economic structures. The grid-iron plans of American cities, for instance, do not express any cosmological concept, but make an “open” world of opportunities manifest. This world is open horizontally as well as vertically. Whereas the community expands horizontally, the success of the individual is indicated by the height of the building erected on the standard lot. Although the grid-iron thus possesses a certain “freedom”, it hardly allows for the concretization of a distinct genius loci. Spatial systems of the cosmic type therefore ought to form part of more complex totalities.

在近代，宇宙式秩序的意义已退化成具体化的政治、社会或经济结构的空间系统。例如美国城市网格的平面并不表示任何宇宙论的概念，而是表明一个机会“公开”的世界。这世界是水平与垂直地开放着的。社区水平式扩展，个人的成就借着由标准的地基所耸起的建筑物高度来暗示。虽然网格有某种“自由”，不过很难具体表达一个清楚的场所精神，因此宇宙式形态的空间系统必须成为更复杂的整体中的一部分。

Classical architecture

As “classical” we designate an architecture distinguished by imageability and articulate order. Its organization can be understood in logical terms, whereas its “substance” asks for empathy. It therefore appears “objective”, in the double sense of the word. Classical architecture is characterized by concrete presence, and each element is a distinct “personality”. Its forms are neither static nor dynamic, but pregnant with “organic life”. They seem the result of a conscious composition of individual elements, and give man simultaneously a sense of belonging and freedom.

古典式建筑

我们所说的“古典”建筑是指具有形象性和清晰秩序的建筑。它的组织可以用逻辑的观点去理解，而其本质则必须依靠移情作用。因此，它具有双重意义上的“客观性”。古典式建筑的特性是具体的存在，同时每个元素都有清楚的“个性”，造型并非静态的也非动态的，而是孕育着“有机的生命”。似乎是个别元素刻意组合而成的一种结果，同时给人以归属与自由的感受。

Classical space uniﬁes topological and geometrical traits. The individual building may possess a strict geometrical order, which forms the basis for its identity, whereas the organization of several buildings is topological. A certain “democratic” freedom is thereby expressed. Classical architecture is thus distinguished by the absence of a general, dominant system, and its space may be deﬁned as an additive grouping of individual places. Whereas the classical landscape was understood as a veduta, classical architecture is described by means of perspective. In relation to the surroundings the classical settlement appears as a distinct, characteristic presence.

古典式空间结合了地形和几何的特征。个别的建筑物可以有一种严格的几何秩序，形成本身认同的基础然而几幢建筑物在一起时的组织则是地形的秩序。因此表达了某种“民主式”自由。所以古典式建筑在特征上缺乏普遍和主宰性的系统，其空间可定义为个别场所的附加集聚。因此古典式地景可视之为风景，古典式建筑则由透视的方法加以描述。古典式聚落在环境中成为清晰、有个性的表现。

This presence is achieved by means of plastic articulation. In the classical building all the parts have their individual identity, at the same time as they condense, explain and perhaps diﬀerentiate the general character of the whole. Each character forms part of a “family” of characters, which are deliberately related to human qualities. In classical architecture the original forces are thus “humanized”, and present themselves as individual participants in a comprehensive, meaningful world. The logic of construction is interpreted as an interaction of active and passive members, and the classical building therefore appears “built” in a direct and intelligible way. Light, ﬁnally, is used give emphasis to the plastic presence of the parts and the whole by means of a play of light and shadow which “models” the form.

这种表现是由可塑性的明晰性所获致。在古典式建筑中，所有的要素都有其个别的认同性，同时浓缩并解释整体的一般特性，也可能稍加改变。每一种特性都成为与人类特质息息相关的特性“族群”的一部分。古典式建筑中原始的力量因而被“人性化”。同时在广阔而有意义的世界里以个别的参与者出现。构造的逻辑被诠释成主动与被动部件间的互动，所以古典式建筑的“筑构”是以一种直接的和可理解的方式来表现。最后，光以“塑造”造型的光影游戏强调各个部件。

We have already made several references to Greek architecture, and should only add that it, in its developed Classical phase, represents the archetype of classical architecture. Throughout history the harmonious and meaningful equilibrium of Greek buildings and settlements has remained an ideal, which has been revived in ever new contexts. In Roman architecture the classical component was strong, but it faded away toward late Antiquity, when plastic presence was substituted by de-materialization and the symbolic “building” of light. In the Florentine Renaissance, however, certain aspects of classical architecture reappeared. Again we ﬁnd the wish for giving the buildings individual plastic presence and anthropomorphous characterization, in combination with simple, intelligible construction. We also ﬁnd that spatial organization was understood as an addition of “independent” units. What is diﬀerent from Classical Greek architecture, is the coordination of all parts within a comprehensive, homogeneous space, a concept which has cosmic implications and reﬂects a belief in a “harmonious” universe. The development of homogeneous space, however, did not prevent meaningful spatial diﬀerentiation.

我们已经提过很多希腊建筑。必须再加以说明的是，在希腊建筑发展古典形态中，表现了古典式建筑的原型。综观历史，希腊建筑与聚落间和谐而有意义的平衡状态，持续着一种理念，始终流露在新的空间脉络里。在罗马建筑中，古典的构件非常强烈，然而在后期的古迹里则逐渐消失，可塑性的表现被“非物质化”和具象征性的光的建筑所取代。然而在意大利文艺复兴中，一些古典式建筑的观点又出现。再度赋予建筑物个别的可塑性表现和人神同形的特性结合了简单而可理解的构造。我们也发觉空间组织被理解成“独立的”单元的一种附加物，与古典式希腊建筑不相同的是，在一个广阔的和同质的空间和概念里具有宇宙式含义，并反映出一种对和谐宇宙的信仰。不过同质空间的发展并未妨碍有意义的空间差异。

In our own time the classical attitude has played an important part. Thus Le Corbusier wrote:“Architecture is the masterly, correct and magniﬁcent play of volumes brought together in light. Our eyes are made to see forms in light; light and shade reveal these forms; cubes, cones, spheres, cylinders and pyramids are the great primary forms ...; the image of these is distinct... and without ambiguity”. Le Corbusier evidently wanted plastic presence and intelligibility, but a certain “abstraction” is also felt, which diﬀers from the “organic” approach of Greek architecture. The true presence which brings the world “close”, was in fact hardly understood by early modern architecture.

在我们的时代里，古典仍扮演重要的角色。柯布西耶写道“建筑是体量在阳光下相结合时的演出，是巧妙的、精确的和壮丽的戏剧。我们的眼睛是生来看那些在阳光下的造型的:阳光和阴影展现了这些造型:立方体、锥体、球体、圆柱体和金字塔，这些原初的形态……；意义是清楚的，而且是毫不含糊的”。柯布西耶显然想追求可塑性的表现和可理解性，不过也能感受到某种“抽象性”，与希腊建筑“有机的”思路有所不同。真实的表现让世界更“亲切”，然而早期的近代建筑很少加以理会。

Complex architecture

Romantic, cosmic and classical architecture are archetypes of man-made place. As they are related to the basic categories of natural understanding, they help us to interpret the genius loci of any particular settlement. Being types, however, they hardly appear in pure form, but participate in various kinds of syntheses. In the history of European architecture two such syntheses are of particular interest: The Gothic cathedral and the Baroque garden-palace. The Gothic cathedral belongs to the romantic Mediaeval town, but transcends its attachment in the natural environment. In the interior of the cathedral atmospheric light is translated into a Divine manifestation, and the systematically subdivided structure represents a visualization of the ordered cosmos described by scholastic philosophy.

复合式建筑

浪漫式、宇宙式和古典式建筑是人为之地的原型。由于它们属于理解自然的基本范畴，对我们诠释任何特殊聚落的场所精神大有帮助。然而形态很少以纯粹的形式出现，而是参与在各种不同的综合形式里。在欧洲建筑史中，两种综合最令人感兴趣:哥特式教堂和巴洛克花园皇宫。哥特式教堂属于浪漫的中世纪城镇，不过超越了在自然环境中的依恋，在教堂里气氛性的光被转换成神的表征，几何形分割的结构代表对繁琐哲学所描述的井然有序的宇宙加以形象化。

The cathedral therefore unites romantic and cosmic qualities, and through its transparent walls the locally interpreted existential meanings of Christianity were transmitted to the town, whose everyday life-world thereby got a cosmic dimension. In the Baroque garden-palace we ﬁnd a diﬀerent kind of synthesis. Here the cosmic dimension is not represented by light as a symbol of the spirit and by a structural system which rises up to receive this light, but by a horizontally extended geometrical network of paths which concretizes the absolutist pretentions of the Sovereign located at the centre of the system. The centre is moreover used to divide the “world” in two halves: a man-made, urban environment on one side, and “inﬁnitely” extended nature on the other. Close to the centre nature appears as a cultural landscape (parterre), further away it becomes more “natural” (bosquet), to end in a “wilderness”. In the Baroque garden-palace, thus, man-made and natural place are united to form a comprehensive whole, with romantic and cosmic implications as well as a built form of classical derivation in the palace itself.

因此教堂结合了浪漫式和宇宙式的特质，同时透过透明的墙，对基督福音存在的意义所作的局部地诠释被传送进城，使得日常生活世界能有一个宇宙的向度。在巴洛克花园皇宫中，我们发现了不同种类的综合。在这里，宇宙的向度并不是借着光的表达作为精神的象征，或利用一种高耸的结构系统吸收这种光，以水平方向扩展，几何形的网状道路，君王位居系统中央，将专制性具体化。而且以此中心把“世界”分割成两部分:人为的都市环境在一边，“无限地”扩展的自然在另一边。靠近中央的自然成为一种文化地景(花圃)，稍远的则比较“自然”(小树林)，最后成为“荒野”。在巴洛克花园皇宫中，人为和自然场所结合在一起，形成一个广阔的整体，具有浪漫的和宇宙的含义，就皇宫本身而言又好像是源自古典的建筑造型。

As the urban environment is based on gathering, it usually oﬀers many possibilities of identiﬁcation. It is therefore easier to feel “at home” in a foreign city than in a foreign landscape. The genius loci of the human settlement in fact represents a microcosmos, and cities diﬀer in what they gather. In some, the forces of the earth are strongly felt, in others the ordering power of the sky, others again have the presence of humanized nature, or are saturated with light. All cities, however, have to possess something of all these categories of meaning to make urban dwelling possible. Urban dwelling consists in the assuring experience of being simultaneously located and open to the world, that is: located in the natural genius loci and open to the world through the gathering of the man-made genius-loci.

都市环境系以集聚为基础，经常提供了许多认同感的可能性。在一个陌生的城市比在陌生的地景中还比较容易有“在家”的感受。人类聚落的场所精神事实上代表一个小宇宙，城市之所以不同是因其集聚的情形不同产生。有些城市很强烈地让人感受到大地的力量，有些则是天空秩序的力量，还有一些则表现出人性化的自然或充满着光。所有的城市都必须拥有这些使都市住所得以存在的意义范畴。都市住所在于肯定能定居同时开放于世界的体验，也即：定居于自然之中的场所精神，同时透过人为场所精神的集聚向世界打开。

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